Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants

Adedayo E Ojo; Katrina R Kissock; Gabriel L Shedul; Ikechukwu A Orji; Guhan Iyer; Vanessa O Alfa; Valerie M Graham; Clementina E Okoro; Mercy Ikechukwu-Orji; Henry U EkeChi; Chisom Obiezu-Umeh; Erica L Jamro; Sanne A E Peters; Diederick E Grobbee; Kylie Howes; Alexandra Jones; Fraser Taylor; Linda Van Horn; Lisa R Hirschhorn; Bruce Neal; Dike B Ojji; Mark D Huffman

doi:10.3390/nu18142348

Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants

Adedayo E Ojo
, Katrina R Kissock
, Gabriel L Shedul
, Ikechukwu A Orji
, Guhan Iyer
, Vanessa O Alfa
, Valerie M Graham
, Clementina E Okoro
, Mercy Ikechukwu-Orji
, Henry U EkeChi
, Chisom Obiezu-Umeh
, Erica L Jamro
, Sanne A E Peters
, Diederick E Grobbee
, Kylie Howes
, Alexandra Jones
, Fraser Taylor
, Linda Van Horn
, Lisa R Hirschhorn
, Bruce Neal

Dike B Ojji, Mark D Huffman

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Academic › peer-review

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Street and restaurant foods constitute a major component of daily diets in low-resource settings due to their affordability, accessibility, and convenience. However, they are frequently characterised by high sodium content, posing significant public health risks, particularly for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Empirical data on sodium levels in Nigerian street and restaurant foods remain limited. This study assessed the sodium content of commonly consumed street and restaurant foods in Kano and Ogun States and the Federal Capital Territory in Nigeria using a multilevel analytical framework. Methods: A total of 2583 food samples were collected from street vendors and three categories of restaurants (self-service, quick-service, and hotel restaurants) between August and October 2024. Sodium concentration was measured using a validated digital salt meter. In all three states, rice-based dishes were the most commonly available street and restaurant foods. Results: More than half (55.4%) were classified as high-sodium (>600 mg/100 g), while only 4.1% were classified as low-sodium (<120 mg/100 g). Median sodium content was highest in the FCT (720 mg/100 g), followed by Kano (650 mg/100 g) and Ogun (600 mg/100 g). Soups and stews had the highest median sodium levels (1360 mg/100 g), with several traditional dishes exceeding 1000 mg/100 g. Multilevel mixed-effects modelling demonstrated that sodium exposure was driven primarily by food type (p < 0.001) and vendor environment (p = 0.009), rather than geographic location (state effect: p = 0.217), indicating structurally embedded issues with sodium content throughout the Nigerian food system. Conclusions: These findings support multilevel sodium reduction interventions targeting high-sodium food categories, vendor preparation practices, and strengthened surveillance to monitor progress toward World Health Organization population sodium reduction targets.

Original language	English
Article number	2348
Journal	Nutrients
Volume	18
Issue number	14
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18142348
Publication status	Published - 17 Jul 2026

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Ojo, A. E., Kissock, K. R., Shedul, G. L., Orji, I. A., Iyer, G., Alfa, V. O., Graham, V. M., Okoro, C. E., Ikechukwu-Orji, M., EkeChi, H. U., Obiezu-Umeh, C., Jamro, E. L., Peters, S. A. E., Grobbee, D. E., Howes, K., Jones, A., Taylor, F., Van Horn, L., Hirschhorn, L. R., ... Huffman, M. D. (2026). Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants. Nutrients, 18(14), Article 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18142348

@article{4fee3561de574fcc88811bc002c6867a,

title = "Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants",

abstract = "Background/Objectives: Street and restaurant foods constitute a major component of daily diets in low-resource settings due to their affordability, accessibility, and convenience. However, they are frequently characterised by high sodium content, posing significant public health risks, particularly for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Empirical data on sodium levels in Nigerian street and restaurant foods remain limited. This study assessed the sodium content of commonly consumed street and restaurant foods in Kano and Ogun States and the Federal Capital Territory in Nigeria using a multilevel analytical framework. Methods: A total of 2583 food samples were collected from street vendors and three categories of restaurants (self-service, quick-service, and hotel restaurants) between August and October 2024. Sodium concentration was measured using a validated digital salt meter. In all three states, rice-based dishes were the most commonly available street and restaurant foods. Results: More than half (55.4\%) were classified as high-sodium (>600 mg/100 g), while only 4.1\% were classified as low-sodium (<120 mg/100 g). Median sodium content was highest in the FCT (720 mg/100 g), followed by Kano (650 mg/100 g) and Ogun (600 mg/100 g). Soups and stews had the highest median sodium levels (1360 mg/100 g), with several traditional dishes exceeding 1000 mg/100 g. Multilevel mixed-effects modelling demonstrated that sodium exposure was driven primarily by food type (p < 0.001) and vendor environment (p = 0.009), rather than geographic location (state effect: p = 0.217), indicating structurally embedded issues with sodium content throughout the Nigerian food system. Conclusions: These findings support multilevel sodium reduction interventions targeting high-sodium food categories, vendor preparation practices, and strengthened surveillance to monitor progress toward World Health Organization population sodium reduction targets.",

author = "Ojo, \{Adedayo E\} and Kissock, \{Katrina R\} and Shedul, \{Gabriel L\} and Orji, \{Ikechukwu A\} and Guhan Iyer and Alfa, \{Vanessa O\} and Graham, \{Valerie M\} and Okoro, \{Clementina E\} and Mercy Ikechukwu-Orji and EkeChi, \{Henry U\} and Chisom Obiezu-Umeh and Jamro, \{Erica L\} and Peters, \{Sanne A E\} and Grobbee, \{Diederick E\} and Kylie Howes and Alexandra Jones and Fraser Taylor and \{Van Horn\}, Linda and Hirschhorn, \{Lisa R\} and Bruce Neal and Ojji, \{Dike B\} and Huffman, \{Mark D\}",

note = "Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2026 by the authors.",

year = "2026",

month = jul,

day = "17",

doi = "10.3390/nu18142348",

language = "English",

volume = "18",

journal = "Nutrients",

issn = "2072-6643",

publisher = "Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)",

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Ojo, AE, Kissock, KR, Shedul, GL, Orji, IA, Iyer, G, Alfa, VO, Graham, VM, Okoro, CE, Ikechukwu-Orji, M, EkeChi, HU, Obiezu-Umeh, C, Jamro, EL, Peters, SAE , Grobbee, DE, Howes, K, Jones, A, Taylor, F, Van Horn, L, Hirschhorn, LR, Neal, B, Ojji, DB & Huffman, MD 2026, 'Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants', Nutrients, vol. 18, no. 14, 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18142348

TY - JOUR

T1 - Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria

T2 - A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants

AU - Ojo, Adedayo E

AU - Kissock, Katrina R

AU - Shedul, Gabriel L

AU - Orji, Ikechukwu A

AU - Iyer, Guhan

AU - Alfa, Vanessa O

AU - Graham, Valerie M

AU - Okoro, Clementina E

AU - Ikechukwu-Orji, Mercy

AU - EkeChi, Henry U

AU - Obiezu-Umeh, Chisom

AU - Jamro, Erica L

AU - Peters, Sanne A E

AU - Grobbee, Diederick E

AU - Howes, Kylie

AU - Jones, Alexandra

AU - Taylor, Fraser

AU - Van Horn, Linda

AU - Hirschhorn, Lisa R

AU - Neal, Bruce

AU - Ojji, Dike B

AU - Huffman, Mark D

PY - 2026/7/17

Y1 - 2026/7/17

N2 - Background/Objectives: Street and restaurant foods constitute a major component of daily diets in low-resource settings due to their affordability, accessibility, and convenience. However, they are frequently characterised by high sodium content, posing significant public health risks, particularly for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Empirical data on sodium levels in Nigerian street and restaurant foods remain limited. This study assessed the sodium content of commonly consumed street and restaurant foods in Kano and Ogun States and the Federal Capital Territory in Nigeria using a multilevel analytical framework. Methods: A total of 2583 food samples were collected from street vendors and three categories of restaurants (self-service, quick-service, and hotel restaurants) between August and October 2024. Sodium concentration was measured using a validated digital salt meter. In all three states, rice-based dishes were the most commonly available street and restaurant foods. Results: More than half (55.4%) were classified as high-sodium (>600 mg/100 g), while only 4.1% were classified as low-sodium (<120 mg/100 g). Median sodium content was highest in the FCT (720 mg/100 g), followed by Kano (650 mg/100 g) and Ogun (600 mg/100 g). Soups and stews had the highest median sodium levels (1360 mg/100 g), with several traditional dishes exceeding 1000 mg/100 g. Multilevel mixed-effects modelling demonstrated that sodium exposure was driven primarily by food type (p < 0.001) and vendor environment (p = 0.009), rather than geographic location (state effect: p = 0.217), indicating structurally embedded issues with sodium content throughout the Nigerian food system. Conclusions: These findings support multilevel sodium reduction interventions targeting high-sodium food categories, vendor preparation practices, and strengthened surveillance to monitor progress toward World Health Organization population sodium reduction targets.

AB - Background/Objectives: Street and restaurant foods constitute a major component of daily diets in low-resource settings due to their affordability, accessibility, and convenience. However, they are frequently characterised by high sodium content, posing significant public health risks, particularly for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Empirical data on sodium levels in Nigerian street and restaurant foods remain limited. This study assessed the sodium content of commonly consumed street and restaurant foods in Kano and Ogun States and the Federal Capital Territory in Nigeria using a multilevel analytical framework. Methods: A total of 2583 food samples were collected from street vendors and three categories of restaurants (self-service, quick-service, and hotel restaurants) between August and October 2024. Sodium concentration was measured using a validated digital salt meter. In all three states, rice-based dishes were the most commonly available street and restaurant foods. Results: More than half (55.4%) were classified as high-sodium (>600 mg/100 g), while only 4.1% were classified as low-sodium (<120 mg/100 g). Median sodium content was highest in the FCT (720 mg/100 g), followed by Kano (650 mg/100 g) and Ogun (600 mg/100 g). Soups and stews had the highest median sodium levels (1360 mg/100 g), with several traditional dishes exceeding 1000 mg/100 g. Multilevel mixed-effects modelling demonstrated that sodium exposure was driven primarily by food type (p < 0.001) and vendor environment (p = 0.009), rather than geographic location (state effect: p = 0.217), indicating structurally embedded issues with sodium content throughout the Nigerian food system. Conclusions: These findings support multilevel sodium reduction interventions targeting high-sodium food categories, vendor preparation practices, and strengthened surveillance to monitor progress toward World Health Organization population sodium reduction targets.

U2 - 10.3390/nu18142348

DO - 10.3390/nu18142348

M3 - Article

C2 - 42514417

SN - 2072-6643

VL - 18

JO - Nutrients

JF - Nutrients

IS - 14

M1 - 2348

ER -

Sodium Content of Street and Restaurant Foods in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis of Food System Determinants

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